In the previous unit, we introduced, in their outline, the mechanisms of verbal
communication according to JAkobsón. In order to pinpoint the fundamental triad of this diagram
of the communication system, we concentrated on three elements only - addresser, context, and
addressee. One of the reasons is that - as we have seen - the referential function plays a vital
role in completing the sense of the utterance. In an utterance, we never take such care as to
specify every detail: we take for granted many aspects of the context, otherwise the communication
would be very inefficient. The emotional and conative functions are crucial too: the former
because of the role that the addresser plays in communication, the latter owing to the position
of the message towards the addressee when the communication takes place.
In order to continue our analysis of verbal communication, we need to consider the
two main aspects of sentence building from a mental point of view.
Experiments carried out on subjects suffering from aphasia showed that the two
cerebral hemispheres, the right one and the left one, govern two different functions. The left
hemisphere presides over the paradigmatic selection of words, while the right hemisphere presides
over their syntagmatic combination 1.
Here is what that means, in simple terms:
Let us imagine the following panel as representing a slot machine. Suppose that,
by pulling its (fictional) lever, we spin its parallel vertical wheels showing on their facets
different words or blanks, until they stop - forming a combination of words. Our slot machine,
though, even allows us to see all the words on the facets not appearing in the central window,
the one showing the utterance starting with "Giampaolo".
| |
Alfredo |
loves |
|
|
|
Gertrude |
| |
Who |
touches |
[the] |
|
|
pasta? |
|
Yesterday |
he |
ran out |
|
of red wine |
|
|
| |
Giampaolo |
runs |
[the] |
coffee |
|
company |
|
Now |
I |
will go |
|
|
to buy |
the paper |
| |
To learn |
requires |
|
|
|
an effort |
| |
|
you give |
[did] |
to Matilda? |
|
What |
First, let us have a look at the table horizontally, starting from the first line.
The mind of the addresser who wants to express a concept begins, say, by looking for the subject
of the action: he carries out a selective process, until he gets to the word "Alfredo",
which satisfies his need of communication at that moment. In order to go on building his
sentence, he has now to face a syntactical problem: after the word "Alfredo", what kinds of
words are likely to follow according to the grammar rules of the English language? By raising
this question, he carries out a combinational process. There are many different
possibilities, but it is more likely that, after the subject, a verb will turn up. At this point,
the addresser mentally reviews all the verbs he knows (selective process), singles out the
one he considers fit (to love), and properly conjugates it. To get to Gertrude, he must carry out
another combinational process (which prevents him from saying, for example, "Alfredo loves
although") and a selective one, until he gets to "Gertrude".
Slot machines do not have combinatorial capabilities. Or rather, they randomly
combine what is shown on bordering wheel facets, without asking syntactical or constructional
questions. Were they humans, one could say that they suffer from right-hemisphere aphasia, or
contiguity disorder. Indeed, our imaginary slot machine may bring forth incomprehensible
expressions, such as "To learn touches to Matilda an effort" or "Now to learn loves coffee an
effort". In other words, the slot machine has a paradigmatic capability (by simply pulling its
lever, we can review the whole range of possibilities), but not a syntagmatic one (indeed, it
combines words randomly).
Conversely, subjects suffering from left hemisphere aphasia do not have any
paradigmatic capability: in other words, they are not able to refer to the range of
possibilities.
As JAkobsón ingeniously understood by reworking concepts that had already been
partially identified by de Saussure, all linguistic acts are based on combination and selection
capabilities.
As for the combination (syntagmatic, horizontal, metonymic axis), a word is in
relation to the next one by contiguity. In the sentence "Giampaolo runs the coffee
company", between "Giampaolo" and "runs" there is no similarity, just contiguity, and the two
words are combinable. The same goes for "runs" and "the coffee" and for "the coffee" and
"company".
As for the selection (paradigmatic, vertical, metaphorical axis), a word is in
relation to the others (above and below, in our model) by similarity.
A metonymy is a figure of speech built on the contiguity relation between
literal and figurative term. For instance, "He earns his living by the sweat of his brow"
substitutes "He earns his living by the work that causes his brow to sweat".
As we can see, it is a syntagmatic relation (subtraction).
On the other hand, a metaphor is a simile that does not express the terms of
comparison. "Golden hair" is a metaphor that originates from the implicit comparison between
the color of the hair and the color of gold, a paradigmatic 2
operation.
These concepts are indispensable for dealing with the three other functions of
verbal communication, which we will examine in the next unit.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES:
JAKOBSÓN R. Brain and Language. Cerebral Hemispheres and Linguistic Structure in Mutual Light. Columbus (Ohio), Slavica, 1980. ISBN 0-89357-068-0.
MARCHESE, A. Dizionario di retorica e di stilistica. Milano, Mondadori, 1991. ISBN 88-04-14664-8.
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